Difference between revisions of "HyperCard"

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(Hypertext and Hypermedia)
(Hypertext and Hypermedia)
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===Hypertext and Hypermedia===
 
===Hypertext and Hypermedia===
The terms hypertext and hypermedia, as they pertain to computing, are officially attributed to Nelson, who described the phenomenon as text or other media “visibly cross-connected by two-way links and transclusions.[http://xanadu.com/XanaduSpace/btf.htm],Nelson, Ted and Robert Adamson Smith. Back to the Future: Hypertext the Way It Used to Be</ref> ”  (Nelson goes on to define transclusions as any method of “presentation which indicates the identity or origins of media content”.)  The term, coined in 1965, expressed possibilities that were still two decades away from fruition.  Hypertext owes its origin to engineer Vannevar Bush’s allegorical Mimex machine: a microfilm-based system of organizing media, regardless of their format, using a navigation scheme modeled after the non-linear twists and turns of mental association .  The technological feasibility of such a non-linear hypertextuality was not realized until the mid-1980’s.  By the late 1980s, programmers and software engineers began to see broader possibilities for hypertext; increased computation speed, wider proliferation and accessibility of personal desktop computers, and greater interest in a nascent public internet drove computer scientists to consider new ways of human computer interaction (HCI) that could include hypertextuality.  By 1987, the concept had been linked to a specific definition pertaining exclusively to computers, and the first Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia was held by the Association for Computing Machinery to address the fledgling theory.  This coincided with the release of Apple’s first version of HyperCard.  Computer Scientist and hypermedia pioneer, Jakob Neilson, inaugurated the first ACM Hypertext and Hypermedia conference, and introduced hypertext as:
+
The terms hypertext and hypermedia, as they pertain to computing, are officially attributed to Nelson, who described the phenomenon as text or other media “visibly cross-connected by two-way links and transclusions.[http://xanadu.com/XanaduSpace/btf.htm].(Nelson goes on to define transclusions as any method of “presentation which indicates the identity or origins of media content”.)  The term, coined in 1965, expressed possibilities that were still two decades away from fruition.  Hypertext owes its origin to engineer Vannevar Bush’s allegorical Mimex machine: a microfilm-based system of organizing media, regardless of their format, using a navigation scheme modeled after the non-linear twists and turns of mental association .  The technological feasibility of such a non-linear hypertextuality was not realized until the mid-1980’s.  By the late 1980s, programmers and software engineers began to see broader possibilities for hypertext; increased computation speed, wider proliferation and accessibility of personal desktop computers, and greater interest in a nascent public internet drove computer scientists to consider new ways of human computer interaction (HCI) that could include hypertextuality.  By 1987, the concept had been linked to a specific definition pertaining exclusively to computers, and the first Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia was held by the Association for Computing Machinery to address the fledgling theory.  This coincided with the release of Apple’s first version of HyperCard.  Computer Scientist and hypermedia pioneer, Jakob Neilson, inaugurated the first ACM Hypertext and Hypermedia conference, and introduced hypertext as:
 
<blockquote>“non-sequentially linked pieces of text or other information.  If the focus of such a system or document is on non-textual types of information, the term hypermedia is often used instead.  In traditional printed documents, practically the only such link supported is the footnote, so hypertext is often referred to as ‘the generalized footnote’. ”</blockquote>
 
<blockquote>“non-sequentially linked pieces of text or other information.  If the focus of such a system or document is on non-textual types of information, the term hypermedia is often used instead.  In traditional printed documents, practically the only such link supported is the footnote, so hypertext is often referred to as ‘the generalized footnote’. ”</blockquote>
  

Revision as of 19:02, 7 March 2010

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HyperCard Tour Stack from Beekman's HyperCard 2.3 in a Hurry p.10

History

HyperCard was first released in 1987 by Apple Computers and was a successful, object-oriented Hypermedia system featuring the Hypertalk programming language. In 1987,with the understanding that Atkinson would give HyperCard to Apple only if they promised to release it for free on all Macs (an agreement that, according to Atkinso, ran out when the largely-rewritten HyperCard application and itd associated fiels retain a creator code of WILD, relfecting this period of development. HyperCard was a huge hit almost instantly. Apple itself never seemed to understand what HyperCard was. Management saw that it was being used by a huge number of people, internally and externally, and bug report and upgrade suggestions continued to flow in from a wide variety of users; clearly people were interested in it.[1]

HyperCard allowed written and graphical information to be accessible in a nonlinear format. It was created by Bill Atkins who also created the MacPaint application and helped develop the Macintosh graphical user interface (GUI). Apple Computers produced the software until 1990 when its subsidiary Claris Corp took over until 1993 when Apple Computers took back the brand. HyperCard software was bundled for free with Macintosh computers from 1987. HyperCard's only major upgrade, 2.0, was released in 1991 (HyperCard leaves Claris). Then, seemingly to add insult to injury, Apple decided that all software including HyperCard should be a part of their Claris division. Many of the developers refused to move from Apple. Claris, in the business of selling software for a profit, also never understood HyperCard.

At Claris,a "viewer" only version, the HyerCard Player, was created. Claris would sell an editor product, whereas Apple would include the HyperCard Player on the system CDs. People would now have to pay to use the product which many considered to be basic part of the Mac.

HyperCard was hyped by Apple as an accessible way for the everyday user of computers to create graphical programs. According to George Beekman, author of HyperCard 2.3 in a Hurry: The Fast Track to Multimedia, “Before HyperCard, it simply wasn’t possible for a computer neophyte, with an investment of a dozen hours to build sophisticated graphic presentations with complex logical structures. With HyperCard, beginners turn into programmers every day” (p.XV). Bill Atkins himself stated in 1987 that HyperCard is "an attempt to bridge the gap between the priesthood of programmers and the Macintosh mouse clickers" (Lewis). In March of 1993, Apple claimed to have three million active HyperCard users and 100,000 active corporate, educational and commercial developers. The company attributed HyperCards popularity in schools due to the simple programming language and in corporations as a front-end to databases and other applications(HyperCard leaves Claris).

Several attempts were made to re-start HyperCard at Apple. The product was eventually rolled into the QuickTime group as it seemed to ahve something to do with multimedia, and a new effort to allow HyerCard to be used to create interactive. QuickTime movies started under the direction of Kevin Calhoun. The resulting HyperCard 3.0 was first presented in 1996 when a beta-quality version was given to developers at Apple's annual Worldwide Developers Conference. Demos were made throughout the late 1990s, showing every feature one could as for, color support, internet connectivity, and the ability to be displayed ina web browser with no effort. For some reason the product was never released, and Kevin Calhoun, the real fo rce in the effort, left Apple in 2001.Apple finally ceased selling HyperCard in March of 2004.[2]

Patent

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from United States Patent. Oct. (19)
  • Patent Number: 5,228,137/Date of Patent: Jul.13,1993
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from United States Patent. Oct.6,1998

"A method of simultaneously executing one or more comuter application programs in one or more host computer system under the control of a second computer system, where the second computer system performs operations on data and instructions and the host computer systems generates presentation information based on the application programs, involves establishing selected parameters in the host computer presentation information, interpreting selected portions of the host computer system's presentation information providing the interpreted selected portions of the host computer system's presentation information as input to a computer program resident in the second computer systerm, examining the host computer system presentation information at the second computer system to detect the presence therein of one or more the selected parameters, continuing operation of the second computer system during the examining for the selected parameters, and generating an indication to the second computer system of the detection of one or more of the selected parameters in the host computer system presentation information." -Appl.No:549,889. Filed: Jul.9,1990.- [3]

Origins

Hyper-reality

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from Ted Nelson's Dream Machines

We have entered the age of hyper-reality.

Day-to-day living provides only a limited variety of physical stimulus, and little incentive to manipulate the physiological and psychological processing involved. Man’s historical preoccupation with the need to maintain constant images of the physical world, is a product of his extreme orientation toward physical survival in a hostile environment. The current evolving of society of leisure orientations removes this need for constant images ant thereby enhances the opportunities for a more complete use of the sensory apparatus and those related brain functions. Many have turned to drugs or meditation. More specifically it is proposed here, that modern communications technology be employed as a ‘vehicle of departure’ from this need for constant images, to bring about a more complete use of human technology itself. Hyper-reality is the employment of technology other than the biological machinery, when used to affect the performance of the biological machinery beyond its own limitations. This is almost like making adjustments on a television set, except you are what’s plugged in, and the controls are outside your body, being part of whatever technology is interfaced to the body itself. As part of such a man-machine interface you could extend your own mental processes, or if you should choose, you could just diddle with the dials. Hyper-reality is an opportunity to enhance the various qualities of the human experience. Reality is obsolete.

—How Wachspress

In Theodore Holm Nelson’s Dream Machines (an artifact of computing culture that is more of a ‘zine than a book), hypermedia is philologically explained in terms of hyper-reality. The advent of hyper-reality represents a change in the human sense apparatus, challenging the linearity of vision by overlaying another viewing dimension exposing the fractured and interconnected status of all objects. To access this dimension, man needs certain technologies, or rather, man must technologize the body in interfacing with a machine that can parse and assist in the navigation of the new viewing dimension. The underlying data structure that supports hyper-reality and renders it usable is hypertext and hypermedia.

Hypertext and Hypermedia

The terms hypertext and hypermedia, as they pertain to computing, are officially attributed to Nelson, who described the phenomenon as text or other media “visibly cross-connected by two-way links and transclusions.[4].(Nelson goes on to define transclusions as any method of “presentation which indicates the identity or origins of media content”.) The term, coined in 1965, expressed possibilities that were still two decades away from fruition. Hypertext owes its origin to engineer Vannevar Bush’s allegorical Mimex machine: a microfilm-based system of organizing media, regardless of their format, using a navigation scheme modeled after the non-linear twists and turns of mental association . The technological feasibility of such a non-linear hypertextuality was not realized until the mid-1980’s. By the late 1980s, programmers and software engineers began to see broader possibilities for hypertext; increased computation speed, wider proliferation and accessibility of personal desktop computers, and greater interest in a nascent public internet drove computer scientists to consider new ways of human computer interaction (HCI) that could include hypertextuality. By 1987, the concept had been linked to a specific definition pertaining exclusively to computers, and the first Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia was held by the Association for Computing Machinery to address the fledgling theory. This coincided with the release of Apple’s first version of HyperCard. Computer Scientist and hypermedia pioneer, Jakob Neilson, inaugurated the first ACM Hypertext and Hypermedia conference, and introduced hypertext as:

“non-sequentially linked pieces of text or other information. If the focus of such a system or document is on non-textual types of information, the term hypermedia is often used instead. In traditional printed documents, practically the only such link supported is the footnote, so hypertext is often referred to as ‘the generalized footnote’. ”

What is HyperCard:

A HyperCard document is referred to as a stack that is comprised of cards. Each card is of an identical size established by the user when the stack is created (until the 2.0 release that allowed for variable sized cards). A user can browse the cards in a stack in the sequential order that they were created. Many cards will have buttons, or links, that will allow the user to jump to cards with related information and to bypass the order. Buttons may be hidden or visible to the user. Hidden buttons respond to clicks even though they aren’t visible, for example introductory cards often used hidden buttons that would take up the whole screen that would send you to the next card.

"HyperCard can best be described as a data-base. It is like an electronic stack of index cards with information. A single card is put on the screen. The card has a variety of buttons and "hot spots." By moving cursor with the mouse and clicking on those buttons and hot spots, the user can move from one card to the next, or from one stack ot another. To some extent, the best analogy might be a sophisticated electornic textbook."(Durkopf,1989:502)

HyperCard Lets users organize the information intuitively by association and context.HyperCard uses graphically generated index card. One can browse, sort,make notes, draw, type, and cross-reference cards in the same manner as can be donw with paper index cards.(Willis, Jr. and Koppe, 1991:1500)

HyperCard players came with most Macs in the early 1990s. While the players allowed the user to read stacks the HyperCard program was required on the hard disk of the machine if the user desired to edit or create new stacks. Hypercard came with a Home stack that's first five cards hold buttons that will direct the user to applications, documents and other stacks. This stack is accessible through a drop down menu in every other stack (Beekman, p.342). Another stack that is included with HyperCard is the Addresses stack.

ADD STUFF ABOUT THREATS TO DATA BASES

Uses

  • Tool for accessing information- contains links that lead you to other related information. A medium for receiving packages of information that were created by someone else
  • Tool for managing information
  • Software construction kit- Bill Atkinson, HyperCard’s creator, calls it a ‘software erector set
  • Medium for publishing information in a nonsequential form
  • Gateway to multimedia computer applications – (Beekman, p.XXII) “it is often used to create friendly ‘front ends’ for other software packages, hardware peripherals, and multimedia devices.” Ex. Devices like videodisc player or CD-ROM drive

Organization and Output

The program stores 42 “recent cards.” When you select recent cards from a drop down menu, you see all 42 cards thumb nails in the order you visited (minus repeats) you can click on any of them to be sent to the card. This is similar to memory cache on internet browsers. The user can also mark cards so that they can be quickly accessed or grouped for printing. In the standard address stack, the user simply clicks the top right corner of the card, and the corner will ‘fold over.’ This skeuomorph reminds the user of selecting a subset of papers or note cards by physically turning over a corner of the paper so the user can easily separate the marked cards/sheets from the rest of the group. The user can mark cards by searching for cards with specific text. There is an option for searching for multiple terms using a intersection or union of two or more variables (Beekman, p.39).

The user can select marked cards or the entire stack to print. As opposed to printing the actual cards, the program can print reports similar to those produced by contemporary database software that highlight certain variables. The user must create and design a print layout that can be saved as a template. HyperCard stacks may have up to sixteen associated templates (Beekman,p.44).

Layers and User Levels

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Customizing Cards from Beekman's HyperCard 2.3 in a Hurry p.49

HyperCards are composed of two layers: the transparent card layer and the opaque background layer. Depending on the user level selected on the last card of the deck, the user will have different degrees of access and editing ability on the two levels of the card. The five different user levels include: 1 Browsing, 2 Typing, 3 Painting, 4 Authoring, and 5 Scripting. The browsing level is the most restricted and will only allow the user to navigate through the cards via buttons. Level 2 allowed the users to populate and edit text fields on the card layer, but did not allow them to access the background layer or create any buttons. The painting level allowed the user to change the appearance of the card level. Authoring allowed the users to access the background layer, create buttons that link cards and stacks together, and create fields. Any change to the background of one card, effected all the other cards that utilized the same background. Therefore if the user wanted to make a specific graphical change or add a button to just one card, they would add it at the card level. The final level was scripting and it allowed the user to script stacks, background, cards, buttons, and fields (Beekman, p.50).

ADD SOMETHING MORE ABOUT SCRIPTING HERE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER APPLICATIONS

HyperCard and the Extension of Writing

HyperCard begins to suggest how the computer can extend the concept of writing.

  • "The first extension has less to do with HyperCard than with the fact that computers work with digitally encoded information. As Richard Lanham(1989) has pointed out, digital encoding makes text coextensive with other digitally encoded material from music to video; thus "Writing" comes to include visual and auditoory dimensions that used to belong to other media." (Slatin,1992:114)
  • "HyperCard extends writing to include programming. Though I hasten to add that it is quite possible to create highly successful HyperCard stacks without writing a single line of code, it is important to recognize that "Computer programming is a kind of writing,"as Jay David Bolter(1991:9)has said, and that the problems involved in the design of computers and computer software are precisely language problems.Moreover, HyperCard's scripting language HyperTalk is more tolerant of syntatic and verbal variety than any other programming language that I know. (Slatin,1992:115)
  • "The user interface mediates a person's relationship with the computerl it includes not only screen layout but also the "behavior" of the elements on the screen. Perhaps even more vital, the user interface mediates relationships with materials off-screen. The interface provides access to the functions of the computer-functions that readers require, for exmaple, in order to activate links they wish to follow. Interface issues are thus rhetorical issues. (Slatin, 1992:115)

External Commands and Functions

GOTO and COME FROM (I think this is what you mean?)

  • Navigation
  • AppleTalk
  • Peripheral Link-ups

Failures

Theorists have criticized HyperCard from the outset for introducing a graphical metaphor that was incompatible with hypermedia’s broader intentions. At the inaugural address of the 1987 ACM Hypermedia conference, computer scientist Andy van Dam cautioned against widescale acceptance of HyperCard’s GUI, saying “[w]e would not want to be limited to a single way of looking at the world such as in HyperCard. ” The graphical metaphor of HyperCard falls into what Ted Nelson would call a “virtual reality” trap. Instead of challenging the writing act; the notion of paper, and the office environment one normally associates with the task of writing; HyperCard seeks to simulate it . The skeuomorphic motif of “cards” and “stacks” are meant to conjure for the user the rolodex or a group of index cards, thus encouraging the familiarity associated with these objects.

  • "l'internet raté"
  • Economic Failures

Problems

  • Can’t undo more than one action. The user must be aware of accuracy and check after every step of construction.
  • Easy to save over files. You have to manually move originals and copies around as well as configure the memory options within HyperCard to avoid this from happening.
  • For stacks that follow narrative or are interactive you need to take a long time to plan and map out the network of cards is required
  • Required a lot of RAM
  • Does not have integrated color capabilities- visual effects only work in black and white (Poole, p.855)

Technological Genealogy

  • Server Scripting
  • Erector Set Logic
  • Browser metaphors
  • Databases- In much of the early press related to Hypercard, journalists referred to the application as 'database software' ("TECHNOLOGY"). But the creator of HyperCard and Apple Computers insisted that HyperCard was a new kind of application beyond anything on the market in 1987 (Lewis).
  • Presentation software- Today's modern presentation software (e.g. Microsoft's PowerPoint) has the same goal of presenting information and graphics in small digestible pieces. Also the transitions between cards can be seen remediated in the transitions between slides.


Cards and Organization Systems

The remediation of paper cards is obvious throughout a user's experience with HyperCard due to the fact that each unit within a document is referred to as a 'card.' The aggregated cards form 'stacks,' despite the fact that they are more accurately a web of connected cards. Most strikingly, these references are to index cards that can be their own technology or put within the organizational systems of a card catalog or a Rolodex.
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Diagram of a HyperCard Stack from Beekman's HyperCard 2.3 in a Hurry p.128
HyperCards allow users to organize information intuitively by context and associations through graphically generated cards. In a similar manner to that used with index cards, users can browse, sort, make notes, draw, type, and cross-reference cards. A card catalog is similar to a HyperCard in that it is composed of several 'cards' that refer the user to some other piece of information. While the information in a HyperCard is self contained (if they do not include any external commands or functions), a card catalog refers to information within another technology, books. But with the additional scripting capabilities of HyperCards, a card can also reference another piece of information that is contained outside of the deck. A Rolodex is a rolling index of cards that usually hold contact information organized alphabetically. While HyperCards are interactive and participatory, they do not allow for random access into the information. The user must enter through the Hypercard program and will be sent to the first card of the deck each time. The user must then navigate to the desired information. Whereas, tabs on the Rolodex or labels on the outside of draws of a card catalog can help a user jump in closer to the information they seek.

References

  1. Nelson, Theodore Holm. Computer Lib/Dream Machines. Distributors, 1974.
  2. Nelson, Theodore Holm and Robert Adamson Smith. Back to the Future: Hypertext the Way It Used to Be. [5]
  3. Nielson, Jakob. “Hypertext ‘87”. ACM SIGCHI Bulletin archive, 1988.
  4. Beekman, George. HyperCard 2.3 in a Hurry: The Fast Track to Multimedia. Peachpit Press, 1996.
  5. "HyperCard leaves Claris, bounces back to Apple." Computer Dealer News 8 Mar. 1993.
  6. Lewis, Peter. H. "PERIPHERALS; It's, Well, HyperCard." New York Times 18 Aug. 1987, Late Edition (East Coast).
  7. "TECHNOLOGY Apple's innovative products. " The Globe and Mail 12 Aug. 1987
  8. Duhrkopf, Richard. "HyperCard"Stacks for Biology. The American Biology Teacher.51(8).1989.502-503[6]
  9. Willis,Jr.W.D and Koppe,James,A."Brain Browser:Hypercard Application for the Macintosh" Sience, New Series, 251.1991.1500-1502.[7]
  10. Slatin,John M. "Hypercard and the extension of writing". 10(1).1992.109-116